IN6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

IN6 - Essay Example Inspirations appear from the region of controlling configurations of ground or in-flight vehicles with purposes in air travel organize, satellite grouping, mechanical highways, movable robotics and movable sensor networks. One of the major aims is to attain a synchronized purpose while employing merely confined information. Due to their recurrent expression in multi-agent schemes, active networks have previously established considerable attention. In a determination of local connectedness of a network is brought in that below positive conditions is enough for global connectedness (Alben et al, 2002). This main focus of this paper is to see this technique in organizational management prospective. In an era when "always accessible, forever connected" has turn out to be the standard anticipation in business, benevolent employees the aptitude to access appliance and real-time data and information could be serious for a companys continued existence. Though a number of industries applications are inexorably client based, a lot of of the center business procedure applications, like that CRM, sales strength automation, and electronic mail, are network based facilities and utilities. In addition, in business situations where teamwork and information distribution are serious, it commonly creates the most intelligence to influence the corporate network as an electronic warehouse of information and possessions. In both of these statements, offering Distributed connectivity and real-time access to the mainly current information be able to be serious to member of employees effectiveness and, normally, to the fulfillment of the enterprises clientele (Deshmukh et al, 1993). This section elaborates why we need this technique for the original management? Here it is described that how this technique can provide effective project management approach and facilitate the project manager. While end-to-end direct connectivity was a necessity

Simons Stigmata In Lord of the Flies Essay Example for Free

Simons Stigmata In Lord of the Flies Essay In William Goldings novel, Lord of the Flies, the character Simon portrays many characteristics similar to those demonstrated by Jesus in the bible. He is shown to have all the qualities that Jesus has: determination, intelligence and resilience. Even his physical appearance portrays Christ since he is skinny and not much of a tough person. Simon was very calm and caring for others, especially with the little children and enjoyed being alone when he could. Simon embodies a pure spiritual human goodness that is deeply connected with nature and people around him as Jesus did with his disciples. Both Jesus and Simon had prophecies about things to come, and they were both persecuted and were ridiculed of for sharing those prophecies. Whereas Ralph and Jack stand at opposite ends of the scale between civilization and savagery, Simon stands on an entirely different plane from all the other boys. Unlike all the other boys on the island, Simon acts with kindness and purity because he believes in the inherent value of morality. He behaves kindly toward the younger children, and he is the first to realize the problem posed by the beast, that the monster on the island is not real or something that can be hunted down and killed. It isnt physical but rather a savagery that lurks within each human being. In Golding’s view, the human impulse toward civilization is not as deeply entrenched as the human impulse toward savagery. Despite the fact that Simon is one of the smallest biguns he never follows the others way of thinking, nor backs down when it comes to speaking up for himself. One such occasion where he shows his defiance of the others beliefs is when he says to everyone, I think we ought to climb the mountain. (page 128) This shows that he knows the beast isnt real and he shows no fear of the unknown. Jesus called people to do things they thought would be simply impossible just as Simon did, and the fact that not even the stronger boys had the courage to do it shows how assured Simon is to his morals. Simon was sacrificed during the ritual dance so that the other boys could live. Simon was killed by all the boys in an excruciating way and claimed that it wasnt really him. Everyone but Ralph thought that Simon was the beast, and didn’t think twice before attacking him. Ralph knew it was Simon they killed, and he realized how everyone was acting like wild creatures. Also the way Simon was shown in the movie after he died showed him as a Christ-figure in the story; Simon dies on water that is calm and peaceful, as the light reflected off the water it gave a kind of feeling of holiness. Simon’s body was carried out by the waves and the way he was floating with his arms stretched out, replicates the way that Jesus died on the cross. Throughout the story, Simon is shown to have a very strong connection with Jesus by his actions of kindness. He displayed as a person with divine ties with Christ and a reminder that purity is everywhere, even when all hopes seem to be gone. The many occurrences Simon gains the courage to speak up and show how smart, intelligent he really is makes a huge impact on everyone. Simon, like Christ, was never evil and always helped others out with what he could. Simon symbolizes and demonstrates a sort a purity that goes beyond human goodness. However, his brutal murder at the hands of the other boys designates the lack of that goodness in people against an overwhelming abundance of evil that lies deep within each and everyone one of us.

Great Expectations by Charles Dickens :: Great Expectations Essays

Great Expectations by Charles Dickens Coursework Question: In the extract where Pip, a boy from a very humble background meets Miss Havisham, a rich but eccentric lady dickens wants the reader to feel sympathetic towards Pip. How does he make us feel this way? In this assignment, I will analyse, discuss and comment on the techniques Charles Dickens (Dickens) uses as a writer to gain sympathy for the main character Pip. I will look closely at setting, language, characterisation, the opening and closing of the extract. I will also quote ideas and phrases from the text to help me analyse and explain. Pip, the main character, is a lonely orphaned child. He lives with his sister and her husband the blacksmith. We know that Pip’s family is poor because they live of a blacksmith wages, not very much. The novel is set in the Victorian era where social status played a major role in daily life; we see this in the novel. Pip’s sister brought him up by ‘hand’ and finds he is a burden on her. Dickens chose to make the main character, Pip, lonely and poor to gain our sympathy. This novel is written in the voice first person, as if it were Pip telling the story. Dickens wrote this novel from Pip’s point of view. Pip is telling us the story when he is much older, as if he were thinking back to when he was a child. The fact that Dickens chose to make Pip, the main character, the narrator instead of another character creates a bond between Pip and us, the readers. In this extract Pip is sent by Mr Pumblechook, a distant relative, to see Miss Havisham (Havisham). Mr Pumblechook is not of higher class, but mingles well with them. Mr Pumblechook believes Havisham will take to Pip like she took to Estella, which would secure Pip’s future. Although another reason is that Pips sister finds he is a burden on her and wouldn’t mind getting rid of him. Pip is warned to behave, as Havisham is of higher social class and his sister doesn’t want him to ruin his chances. When Pip enters Havisham’s house we have hope for Pip that Havisham will take to him like she did to Estella. Havisham, as she is of higher, lives in a more lavish house than Pip. Dickens uses the setting to gain sympathy and to keep us interested. Pip enters a large room, he very observant. For example he mentions, ‘pretty large room, well lighted with wax candles.’ The description creates a mental image in our minds of where he is, immediately we

Parenting Styles in the Family Crucible

The Family Crucible: The Intense Experience of Family Therapy In The Family Crucible, a unique way of looking at family therapy is used. This approach probably would not be something that would be done by therapist now. The more that we study systemic approaches the less I believe that there are any individual problems. With that being said there is a long reach that effects of parenting has on a child. * . Describe how Carolyn and David fit in terms of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive forms of parenting. * Authoritative parents set clear and consistent limits for children.They are flexible but firm, whichs leads to children who are responsible, cooperative, and self reliant. * There are almost as many parenting â€Å"styles† in the world as there are parents. However, most experts have classified parenting styles into three main categories: authoritarian, permissive and authoritative. If you are aiming to raise a self-reliant, pleasant, well-behaved child, the aut horitative parent will generally have the most success. * What is Authoritative Parenting? * Authoritative parents exercise control over their children, without being controlling.They set rules and guidelines that they expect children to follow. But they also recognize that sometimes flexibility is called for. Authoritative parents often express love and affection to their children, without fear that such expressions of emotion may affect their ability to discipline. As their children get older, authoritative parents encourage more responsibility and freedom, within well-outlined rules. The American Academy of Pediatrics and other children's health organizations state that children of authoritative parents usually grow up to be independent, socially successful, and respectful of authority. This style is sometimes also referred to as an indulgent or non-directive parenting style.* The inconsistency of the permissive parenting style often leaves devoted parents grieving for their pare nting mistakes. * Permissive parents have the belief that really showing their child love and feeling their love, in return, is their ultimate goal in parenting. * They do love their children and are highly bonded to them. But their relationship is one of equals rather than as parents to children. * To gain compliance from their children they will often resort to gift giving and even out right ribery, rather than setting boundaries and expecting obedience. * Permissive means to be lenient, liberal, lax and hands-off. During the 1960s, developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind described three different types of parenting styles based on her researcher with preschool-age children. One of the main parenting styles identified by Baumrind is known as the authoritarian parenting style. Authoritarian parents have high expectations of their children and have very strict rules that they expect to be followed unconditionally.According to Baumrind, these parents â€Å"are obedience- and statu s-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation. † People with this parenting style often utilize punishment rather than discipline, but are not willing or able to explain the reasoning behind their rules. Characteristics of the Authoritarian Parenting Style Authoritarian parents: * Have strict rules and expectations. * Very demanding, but not responsive. * Don't express much warmth or nurturing. * Utilize punishments with little or no explanation. Don't give children choices or options. The Effects of Authoritarian Parenting Parenting styles have been associated with a variety of child outcomes including social skills and academic performance. The children of authoritarian parents: * Tend to associate obedience and success with love. * Some children display more aggressive behavior outside the home. * Others may act fearful or overly shy around others. * Often have lower self-esteem. * Have difficulty in social situations. Understanding Authoritarian Pare ntingBecause authoritarian parents expect absolute obedience, children raised in such settings are typically very good at following rules. However, they may lack self-discipline. Unlike children raised by authoritative parents, children raised by authoritarian parents are not encouraged to explore and act independently, so they never really learn how to set their own limits and personal standards. While developmental experts agree that rules and boundaries are important for children to have, most believe that authoritarian parenting is too punitive and lacks the warmth, unconditional love and nurturing that children need.References Baumrind, D. (1967). Child-care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75, 43-88. Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56-95. Maccoby, E. E. (1992). The role of parents in the socialization of children: An hi storical overview. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1006-1017. Santrock, J. W. (2007). A topical approach to life-span development, third Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. I believe the authors’ were instrumental in providing a clear example of what the family really needed and searched for. The family needed to realize that in order for the family to make a real change they need to utilize a structure that included the entire family. They also needed to know that the therapists were completely serious and in control. Their stance was something I could completely agree upon. However, I do not agree that the family was trying to question their authority or provide a strategy to defeat the new system in which they were beginning to enter.Barring this, the authors’ posed a series of questions that they strongly believed the family was thinking. Did Don really wonder â€Å"will the family undertake changing the whole family without me? † Therefore, I did not agree with the as pect of â€Å"we know what you’re thinking†. I felt that this was too deep of an approach. The basic underlining problem of the family was that they did not know how to communicate and could not establish their own structure to allow their family system to operate in harmony.Another aspect of the text that I thought was fundamental and provided me with a different outlook on approaching a perceived problem was the way in which the two therapists began the therapy. The family entered into therapy by believing that Claudia was their entire problem and that her actions alone were the root of their dilemma. However, she was just the perceived problem. And in order for the parents to see that Claudia was only the perceived problem the therapists reversed the blame that the parents had projected on to their daughter.I believe this technique was most attractive. Through the art of helping the family to view their situation differently, the therapists initiated a second-order change allowing the family to step outside their norm and see that their failure in marriage was affecting their parenting. Thus, the therapists gave Claudia meaning while reducing her feeling of failure and at the same time proposed the more serious problem that the parents had slowly began drifting away from each other and suffered the impasse of a deadening marriage.In my view, once the fundamental problem of the marriage was introduced and the family began to realize that each had a role in a family system that was failing, many changes began to take place. Most importantly, I saw the problems associated with scapegoating the children fall by the wayside that allowed the parents to confront the hard issues they had so skillfully avoided through the dynamics they developed among themselves. It was good to see that confronting the parents with their underlining problem helped to reduce the polarization effect they were projecting on the family members around them.Now, this is not to say that all the issues disappeared instantly. There was still the fact that the parents triangulated the children in order to get reacquainted with their true feeling about one another. Likewise, a considerable amount of blame lingered throughout the entire therapy. And when the therapists tried to work the issues of blame, I had to disagree with there methods. It seemed as if they were constantly trying to evoke a confrontation between the two blaming individuals in order to get the family to surface their real feelings and issues.Consequently, when the confrontations turned into physical fights the therapists seemed surprised that such emotional distress took place. What more did they expect. I completely understood what they were trying to accomplish, however, I had a hard time understanding their methodology. As I look back through my notes, I noticed many of the same underlining factors that seemed to keep surfacing. First, both parents were consumed in the self. The father was constantly consumed with his work and the mother seemed completely bored with her life and wanted a change.Here is where I had difficulty in understanding the authors’ point of view. They thought that the parents were not consumed in the self, but just had difficulty showing affection toward the other. Now, I believe the there was a lack of affection, however, if they were any more consumed in doing what the self wanted this may lead to more difficulty when confronting the Other's’ wishes and the Self’s wants. I really got lost with this aspect. Another difficulty I have with the authors’ view on family therapy is the fact that they seemed to think that every issue was rooted in past family issues.This is a great aspect to try and tackle. However, trying to find out which issues in the past are the cause of the present problems can be very time consuming and expensive. I agree that this type of therapy can be revolutionary, but I do not believe that family therapy would be for everyone. Subsequently, I would also agree that this book did a great job illustrating why sometimes family therapy and not individual therapy can be the right solution. Maybe, this mixed message is why I still have opposing emotions about this very intriguing approach.Developmental psychologists have long been interested in how parents impact child development. However, finding actual cause-and-effect links between specific actions of parents and later behavior of children is very difficult. Some children raised in dramatically different environments can later grow up to have remarkably similar personalities. Conversely, children who share a home and are raised in the same environment can grow up to have astonishingly different personalities than one another. Despite these challenges, researchers have uncovered convincing links between parenting styles and the effects these styles have on children.During the early 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind condu cted a study on more than 100 preschool-age children (Baumrind, 1967). Using naturalistic observation, parental interviews and other research methods, she identified four important dimensions of parenting: * Disciplinary strategies * Warmth and nurturance * Communication styles * Expectations of maturity and control Based on these dimensions, Baumrind suggested that the majority of parents display one of three different parenting styles. Further research by also suggested the addition of a fourth parenting style (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).The Four Parenting Styles 1. Authoritarian Parenting In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment. Authoritarian parents fail to explain the reasoning behind these rules. If asked to explain, the parent might simply reply, â€Å"Because I said so. † These parents have high demands, but are not responsive to their children. According to Baumrind, these parents â€Å"are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation† (1991). 2. Authoritative ParentingLike authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic. Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions. When children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are more nurturing and forgiving rather than punishing. Baumrind suggests that these parents â€Å"monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive.They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative† (1991). 3. Permissive Parenting Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, have very few demands to make of their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control. According to Baumrind, permissive parents â€Å"are more responsive than they are demanding. They are nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation† (1991).Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than that of a parent. 4. Uninvolved Parenting An uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness and little communication. While these parents fulfill the child's basic needs, they are generally detached from their child's life. In extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect the needs of their children. The Impact of Parenting Styles What effect do these parenting styles have on child development outcomes?In addition to Baumrind's initial study of 100 preschool children, researchers have conducted numerous other studies than have led to a number of conclusions about the impact of parenting styles on children. * Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to children who are obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness, social competence and self-esteem. * Authoritive parenting styles tend to result in children who are happy, capable and successful (Maccoby, 1992). * Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation.These children are more likely to experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school. * Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem and are less competent than their peers. Why Do Parenting Styles Differ? After learning about the impact of parenting styles on child development, you may wonder why all parents simply don't utilize an authoritative parenting style. After all, this parenting style is the most likely to produce happy, confident and capable children.What are some reasons why parenting styles might vary? Some potential causes of these differences include culture, personality, family size, parental background, socioeconomic status, educational level and religion. Of course, the parenting styles of individual parents also combine to create a unique blend in each and every family. For example, the mother may display an authoritative style while the father favors a more permissive approach. In order to create a cohesive approach to parenting, it is essential that parents learn to cooperate as they combine various elements of their unique parenting styles.

A Letter from Ponyboy

Greetings to you! How are you, older brother?   It’s been quite a while since I sent you a letter. My mistake. Sorry for that. I’ve been busy for the last few weeks here insane Diego. My study is eating up most of my time. Right now, we are approaching already the finals week.A lot of requirements are already on my list. But don’t you worry brother, I am okay. I manage to keep healthy and strong despite the conflicts of time in my part-time job and schooling. And speaking of work, I have some good news for you. The manager of the food chain I am working at was impressed by my dedication to my job. In fact, I was chosen to be the crew of the month.Because of that, I got an additional compensation in my salary. Not too big, but large enough to spend for my thesis. It was a big help since I badly needed to finish my thesis as the final submission of it is nearing. Of course, I have to graduate this semester. That was my promise to you, right? Don’t worry, D arry. All of your spending for my schooling will finally come to an end. A month from now, I will be called â€Å"Lawyer Ponyboy Curtis†. However, I will not be able to reach this status if not because of you.Thank you so much, Darry. I really appreciate all the things you have done and sacrificed for me. I know that you don’t want to marry your fiancà ©e Lindsay until I haven’t finished my studies. But I told you for several times that you don’t need to do that. You don’t have to sacrifice your own happiness just for my sake. I can manage myself now. I am a man now.Being thirty years old is no longer young. But what did you do? You still insisted to pay half of my tuition. I told you to keep them for yourself and for your future. You, too, are no longer young. You must build a family of your own, just like what Sodapop did. You’re such a stubborn. No wonder why they called you Superman back then. You’re such a strong-willed person. But no matter how strong-willed you are, you must promise me that after my graduation, you will take care of your personal life.By the way, how’s work after being promoted as chief lieutenant of the Oklahoma Police Department? Doing well? How’s peace and security there? You know what, I’m very happy with your current situation, actually, with the situations of us three—you, Sodapop, and I. After the long battle between the Socs and the greasers, I was glad that you decided to study and be a cop.I haven’t told you this, but I want you to know now that you are my greatest idol. When I saw how you managed to study while working, I admire you. Aside from that, you managed to raise me and Sodapop well after that horrible loss of our parents. Thank you for that.What’s up with Sodapop, by the way? Have the two of you seen each other lately? I had the chance to meet him personally last month after he visited his in-laws here in California. I also ha d the chance to meet the kids. Oh, Paul was so cute.He’s so like Sodapop—charming and good-looking. I bet when he grows up, he will be a Sodapop the Second. And have you heard about the good news? Sandy is three- month old pregnant! Boy, you should see the happiness in their eyes—a picture of a complete and a happy family. Aside from that, Sodapop is planning to put up a branch of their bookstore here in San Diego. Looks like he and Sandy are meant for business.I really wanted to be with you now, Darry. How I miss my adolescent days. Right after my graduation, I will spend some time with you. You take care of yourself. Until next time.Your younger brother,Ponyboys

The Ethical Valuation of Euthanasia essays

The Ethical Valuation of Euthanasia essays The ethical valuation of euthanasia has been hotly contested within both the judicial and ethical arena for the past two decades. Philosophers and politicians alike stand on either side of the debate without a clear view of the future ahead. Euthanasia itself is a term that needs further clarification; it is a term that encompasses two parts active euthanasia and passive euthanasia. Within active euthanasia there is an intentional attempt at mercy killing whereas within passive euthanasia a patient is allowed to die. The difference, though subtle in nature has a strong ethical connotations. Within the medical profession, active euthanasia is argued to be strictly unethical precisely because it goes against the creed of medical ethics. The AMA (American Medical Association) argues that by allowing active euthanasia we are promoting a culture that is antithetical to the practice of medicine. They forward several rational explanations for this perspective. First, that there have been cases where medical technology has allowed those who were incurable to become cured, as in the case of HIV/AIDS and certain types of cancers. Another argument is that patients, especially those who cannot speak for themselves may often wish to live given the opportunity, and the status quo assumption of any medical professional should always error on the side of living. Finally, they argue that active euthanasia entails doctors to kill, and it represents a symbolic giving up, all three reasons provide a rationale explanation for their position against euthanasia. The ethics of active euthanasia is very clear cut, in the minds of many, acting to cause the death of an individual constitutes direct participation. Detractors of euthanasia claim that by physically taking action to cause death, an agent becomes morally reprehensible for the action because he or she becomes a direct player. The question surroundi...

The Evolution of Attraction

The Evolution of Attraction Free Online Research Papers The evolution of sex is the hardest problem in evolutionary biology. -John M. Smith One of the most curious problems of the human condition pertains to sexual diversification amongst men and women. It is apparent that the physiology of both sexes differs to some degree. Both men and women have different reproductive organs yet, there seems to be a lot more going on underneath the surface. Why do men find women attractive? Why do women find men attractive? Mating rituals have changed over the course of history, but has basic human biology? The Truth is Stranger with Friction Sex isn’t the only way of reproduction but it’s what humans ended up with. The reasoning behind this, sexual intercourse is crucial for staving off parasitic invasion. In evolutionary terms, sexual intercourse allows for diversification of genes, which are combined during reproduction. This combination of genes allows for greater diversification and a better chance of combating microscopic intruders that don’t have time to adapt. There is ample evidence for this across many sexually reproducing species (Zimmer, 2001). Man on Top Men rule. Well, at least they think they do. Throughout the greatest epochs of history, humans have never recorded a matriarchal society. There have only been those dominated by males. This shouldn’t come as a surprise to anyone that has even heard the word history. Think about the word history or his-story. The word comes from the Greek word historia which is a derivative of the word historein which means â€Å"to inquire.† Unfortunately for women, the etymology of the word keeps rooting itself further as historein derivative is formed from â€Å"history† or â€Å"learned man.† So obviously man has dominated certain aspects of language. But does this mean they have dominated humanity sexually? In short, yes. Men have been genetically qualified to run around on the Savannah and acquire the capital to help diversify their genetics (evolutionarily speaking). For most mammals, the male becomes the king. Paul Ehrlich qualifies this with his research in apes. Gorilla males are almost twice as large as their female counterparts and exhibit larger canine teeth. This is tell-tale of male dominated societies where the males vie for access to the most plentiful harem of women (177) and is commonly referred to as Sexual Dimorphism, a theory whereby the size of a male is a measurement of sexual selection for mates. Ehrlich goes on to transpose this theory into a more human aspect. Homo erectus was the first to show a closer dynamism between human ancestry and their contemporary. The size differences were closer to humans of today (about 15-20 percent) which is probably due to selection that aimed to reduce battles over dominance or a perhaps a result of growing intelligence used to joc key for positioning in mating hierarchies. So then, are women more likely to be attracted to men that fight in the UFC rather than paint pictures and gather flowers? Fear not poets and future laureates of the Nobel Prize, all is not lost. It seems that though size is advantageous for men to dominate women, bigger isn’t better and certainly not always in charge. It’s Not the Size of the Jaw Line, it’s the Motion in the Evolutionary Environment of Adaptation What women want; it is a question that men have tried to solve for centuries. Leave it to dull scientific instrumentation to offer one of the best answers. Yes, women seem to be the more complicated sex. This is all in a fine attempt by Mother Nature to ensure only the best genes get passed on. If Mother Nature had a direct line, she would receive a lot of correspondents explaining to her of countless failures. But Mother Nature still persists and it’s the thought that counts and here are a few thoughts as to how women vary from men when choosing a potential partner. Women have it much more difficult than men. Choosing a mate can be a bigger decision for a woman than choosing career paths or even the type of mortgage they will be fixed at for the next thirty years. After all, the job, even if it turns out to be less than spectacular, can be exchanged for a new one. A house with a fixed mortgage can always be sold. A child that springs forth from a relationship cannot however and this is a weighty idea. Nine months of gestation as well as possible decades thereafter are needed to rear children. A man doesn’t have to put forth as much capital as a woman. Besides the obvious outside resources, a woman must put forth an exorbitant amount of physical capital. And because humans and their reproductive organs have shelf lives, the choice between the stud and the dud could be a matter of life and death. For starters, women are attracted to a very important part of human physical appearance. This is facial appearance and it differs for men and women. For women, Levay and Valente argue that there are many variables in the attractiveness of faces. The four factors that most cognitive and Evolutionary Psychologists are concerned with are left-right symmetry, averageness, masculinity-femininity and colloquially put, babyfaceness. Just as animals look for symmetry in their mates, so do humans. The more symmetrical a person’s face is, the more attractive they are to others (Grammer and Thornhill, 1994). Experiments that have subjects rate the attractiveness of people in photos show that the most symmetrical faces win (Scheib et al., 1999). Facial symmetry can divulge details about a persons’ health as the same genetic instructions account for both sides of the body. If the development is halted or misguided, a high degree of Fluctuating Asymmetry can occur. This term refers to the change in the symmetrical features of the body when a variable such as a parasite is introduced. Fluctuating Asymmetry is a signal that there were no major upsets during development, such as infection or traumatic illness. Symmetrical qualities help deduce susceptibility to disease. Humans with better symmetrical features were found to suffer less major diseases such as schizophrenia, extremely premature birth, and retar dation amongst other physical and psychological stressors (Shackelford and Larsen, 1997). Women also look at other facial cues such as jaw width, lip size, chin size and amount of facial hair. What complicates this is the fact that the preferences for these features change during the female menstrual cycle. Women are more likely to prefer men of masculine features (larger jaw, chin and supra-occipital ridgeline) during ovulation (Penton-Voak and Perrett, 2000; Johnston et al., 2001). The idea is that women may be primed to venture forth and sniff out â€Å"good genes† or rather, ones that show physical superiority, during times of fertility. Women conversely find neo-natal features ideal when ovulation is not occurring. Wide-eyes and smooth, hairless skin are attributes of a gentler persona and heavily linked to infancy. Women look for these features in men when infertile as they are indicators of a long-term mate who will not be straying away from home in search of other potential sex partners (Penton, Voek 1999). There are other features that women find attractive in men. The term â€Å"desperation is a stinky cologne† is validated in the world of evolution. Margo Wilson and Martin Daly of McMaster University in Canada have studied jealousy across cultures and concluded that is universally human. No culture can be seen to exist without but the consequences are usually the same. In his chapter in The Red Queen (1993), Matt Ridley states that jealousy is espoused from low self-esteem; a generally negative trait in pair bond selections. â€Å"Jealousy shows low self-esteem, they say, and emotional dependency. Indeed it does, and that is exactly what the evolutionary theory would predict. A man held in low esteem by his wife is exactly the kind of person in danger of being cuckolded, for she has the motive to seek a better father for her children† (237). Ridley conjectures that women are always looking for the best fathers for their children and may even look to outside sources for genetic material, all the while having the current partner believe he is raising his own flesh and blood. He goes on to state that though polygamy is rare in hunter-gatherer societies, adultery however, is everywhere (229). Concealed ovulation can ensure that a child’s true DNA is not discovered. Cuckoldry is thus able to conceal itself at least, until the child develops a strange compulsion to deliver milk to neighbors’ doors. As humorous as this scenario is, the advantage of concealed ovulation is that the woman can get the more sought after genetics with a father more likely to give more resources in raising the child. Even more interesting is that Baker and Bellis found women retained more sperm when they went greater lengths without sex. Furthermore, the duo found non-faithful women to have high-retention orgasms with extra-marital lovers 70 percent of the time. The unfaithful women in these studies only achieved high-retention orgasms 40 percent of the time with their partner whom they claimed loyalty toward. It is of interest to note that these high-retention orgasms occurred only 55 percent of the time in relationships with faithful women. Are women doomed to try and mate at different times with multiple partners? Not necessarily. As mentioned before with male jealousy, other factors in a relationship can determine a woman’s adulterous choices. The female race therefore is not doomed to a life paralleling day-time dramas. However, consideration must be given to this these conflicts. Though the concept of adultery arose when rock music was in its literal form, it still pervades today. Infidelity is a vestige of humanity’s ancestral past. Waist Not, Want Not Though male preference for sexual selection in females seems to be less complicated, there are some interesting differences to consider for the Y chromosome. Human males have been found to enjoy not slender women but slender waists. The coveted â€Å"Waist-to-Hip-Ratio† has an important influence on sexual desire. Because women store fat in the areas of their hips after puberty, their waist is smaller, giving the appearance of the hour-glass figure. A waist-to-hip ratio of 0.7-0.9 is found to be the ticket to drive men wild (Levay, 222-223). These ratios have held up across cultures as well. The pre-conceived notion that larger breasts increased attractiveness was dismissed and though men did prefer larger than average breasts, women’s estimation on what men found insatiable was far from the mark (Thompson, Tantleff, 1992). The Hair Essentials Fact: hair grows fastest in 16-24 year old women. Consequently perhaps, younger women tend to wear their hair longer than older women (Hinsz et al., 2001). If you’re a man looking for a mate, it seems that younger women may be predisposed to play with their locks and men may be predisposed to detect it. The popular â€Å"hair-flip† was proved to be more prevalent in women in search of a mate (Moore, 1985). Men it turns out, love it. Long hair is a definite turn-on as Mesko and Bereczkei found in 2004. Men rated women’s youth, femininity and sexiness with long/medium length hair having a significant positive effect on these ratings. Long hair also increased men’s perception of the female subject’s overall health. Grammer (2001) backed up this claim and even hypothesized that longer hair allowed for greater pheromone dispersal. It’s no wonder that the trips to the salon for women are on average, much pricier than for men. Human evolution has played a significant role in the rules of engagement pertaining to sex. Studies are being amassed and as more information is gathered, it is more apparent that this field is tantamount to others within psychology. Though the traits governing attraction were developed long before civilized societies had arisen, their reverberations can be felt to this day. Advertising, the internet, instant messaging and a plethora of other technological advances have augmented the original mating rituals of humanity’s past, yet the biology still pervades. Some studies seem trite or obvious while others show a counterintuitive truth. As interesting as this is, it is still in the backlogs of popular culture as businesses and individuals continue to marginalize one gender, dismissing another though compelling evidence and research points elsewhere. Future observations on how technology will change human sexual development will be interesting and may even change some popular my ths about both sexes. Most importantly, what remain unchanged are the differences in attractive qualities and demands for Sexual Selection in humans through thousands of years. References Daly, M., Wilson, M., and Weghorst, J. (1982). Male sexual jealousy. Ethology and Sociobiology, 3, 11-27. Ehlich P., (2000). Human Natures: Genes, Cultures and the Human Prospect. New York, NY: Island Press. Fink, B., Grammer, K. Thornhill, R. (2001). Human (homo sapiens) Facial Attractiveness in Relation to Skin Texture and Color. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 115 (1), 92–99. Grammer, K., Thornhill, R. (1994). Human (homo sapiens) Facial Attractiveness and Sexual Selection: The Role of Symmetry and Avergeness. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108, 233-243. Johnston, V. S., et al. (2001), Male Facial Attractiveness: Evidence for a Hormone-Mediated Asaptive Design. Evolutionary Human Behaviour, 22, 251-267. Knowner, R. (1996). Facial Asymettry and the Attractiveness Judgment in Developmental Perspective. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 22, 662-675. LeVay S., Valente S. (2006). Human Sexuality. (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Sinauer Associates. Penton-Voak, I. S., Perrett, D. I. (2000). Female Preference for Male Faced Changes Cyclically. Evolutionary Human Behaviour, 21, 39-48 Ridley. M., (1993). The Red: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M. (1996). Betrayal in mateships, friendships, and coalitions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22 , 1151-1164. Scheib, J. E., Gangestad, S. W., Thornhill, R. (1999). Facial Attractiveness, Symmetry, and Cues to Good Genes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 266-1913-1917. Zimmer C, (2001). Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea. New York, NY: Harper Collins. Research Papers on The Evolution of AttractionInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesGenetic EngineeringResearch Process Part OneAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyThe Fifth Horseman19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraHip-Hop is ArtCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use

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Strongest Predictors of Marketing Success With Jordan Loftis [PODCAST] What separates successful marketers from those who struggle? Have you ever wondered? Finding out is the key to effective marketing. Relying only on anecdotes isn’t effective; you need to have actual data. Today we’re going to dive deeply into the topic with Jordan Loftis, the content marketing strategist here at . Armed with his insights, you’ll be able to make decisions based on what really works and what doesn’t. Get ready to glean the wisdom you know to decide what to do to be most effective! What Jordan does at as the content marketing strategist. Information about the 10x vs 10% framework and how it helps marketers prioritize what to work on next. Why Jordan took on the huge project of surveying 1,600 marketers to compile a report on the state of marketing strategy, as well as some of the findings that surprised Jordan. Why documentation of a marketing strategy is vital to success. What Jordan found out about goal-setting when it comes to marketing, including the â€Å"trifecta† of documentation, goal-setting, and success. How often the most elite marketers conduct research. Jordan’s best advice for marketers: Embrace reality and learn to enjoy being proven wrong. Links: State of Marketing Strategy Report (free download) Joe Pulizzi on documenting your marketing strategy The Power of Habit If you liked today’s show, please subscribe on iTunes to The Actionable Content Marketing Podcast! The podcast is also available on SoundCloud, Stitcher, and Google Play. Quotes by Jordan: â€Å"Our main job is to create the best content on the Internet to help marketers solve problems and just do awesome work all the time.† â€Å"There’s a huge correlation between being successful and documenting your strategy.† â€Å"You can’t just create awesome content you have to create the right kind of awesome content.†

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A quel point la perscution des minorits refltait-elle la volont des forces doccupation et quel point refltait-elle des tendances au sein de la socit franaise elle-mme - Essay Example t de la droite politique blà ¢mà © [certains politiciens] pour la « excà ¨s  »de Vichy ».1 Pendant ce temps, Vichy a luttà © pour maintenir son appel mà ©tropolitaines, mais il a à ©tà © aux prises avec les problà ¨mes sociaux qui ont de persà ©cuter un segment de la socià ©tà © franà §aise. La zone non occupà ©e de la [France] et lassistance nà ©cessaires administration à ©conomique.2 Il y avait des problà ¨mes majeurs. Les deux Franà §ais et Britanniques ont combattu pour lindà ©pendance de la France. "Dans la campagne de 1940 les Franà §ais se sont battus courageusement, mais ... [l]es Britanniques ont combattu beaucoup plus obstinà ©ment ... ».3 Pour donner un peu de contexte, lAllemagne avait acquis une partie de la France qui a à ©tà © envahie par les gens.  «En occupant la moitià © nord du pays et toute la cà ´te Atlantique, lAllemagne sest approprià © le partie la plus riche et le plus peuplà © de la France mà ©tropolitaine ».4 En raison de loppression de son peuple, la rà ©putation de Vichy est à   jamais ternie. "Lhistoire de Vichy, en cette epoque, abonde en pareils trompe-lÅ“il ».5 À la dà ©fense du peuple juif, les combats ont à   lEst. "Par consà ©quent, au cours de la plupart des annà ©es de combats sur le front de lEst (oà ¹ la majeure partie de larmà ©e allemande a à ©tà © engagà ©), les conditions sont devenues de plus en plus semblables à   celles sur le front occidental dans la Premià ¨re Guerre mondiale ».6 Il semblait que beaucoup de gens mà ©prisaient les Juifs, cà ©tait un sentiment populaire et à   la mode dà ©pouser à   là ©poque. "Mà ªme aprà ¨s la guerre, Xavier Vallat revendiquà ©e, avec quelque raison, que lanti-sà ©mitisme de Vichy avait rà ©flà ©chi volontà © populaire. Dans les registres tenus par ladministration franà §aise au cours de 1940-1944 il ya des signes à ©vidents de lantipathie populaire pour les Juifs, en particulier pour les rà © fugià ©s juifs à ©trangers ... ... rà ©pandre sur les Juifs dorigine franà §aise ainsi  ».7 Pendant ce temps, le cerveau se cache derrià ¨re la

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Space Elevator - Research Proposal Example It is a fixed structure as opposed to a vehicle which will be fuel hungry and will have limited capacity of locomotion between the body and the space. A typical space elevator will be a cable like structure extending from the earth's surface into the outer space. It's center of mass will coincide with the Geostationary Earth Orbit, which is at an altitude of 35,786 km. Locomotion will be facilitated by electromagnetic vehicles which will travel along the cables and will be effective in the movement of people, power and other material. (Audacious & Outrageous: Space Elevators) The Space Elevator has caught the fancy of the scientific fraternity all across the globe. As the race to become the builder of the world's first Space Elevator gets heated up, interesting facts emerge. Japanese scientists have gone on record proclaiming that they were in the process of researching the possibility of building a Space Elevator - capable of transporting cargo as well as tourists, for $ 11 Billion. (Ramadge and Schneider) A region off the west coast of Australia has been identified as an Earth Dock, a location perfect for building the base earth station. "The Indian Ocean off Western Australia has been identified as an ideal location for a 'space elevator'; a thin carbon nano tube connecting a barge to a space station, along which supplies could be carried up. Construction could draw on the WA oil industry's expertise in constructing offshore platforms, as well as its material resources. NASA is currently investigating the feasibility of the project." (qtd. in "Lost in Space' Setting a new direction for Australia's space science and industry sector", 27) The structural specifications of the Space Elevator include several parts like the base station, a cable, climbers, and a counterweight. Base stations, in almost all prototypes, are of two varieties - stationary and mobile. Ships and other vessels can serve as mobile base stations while buildings at higher altitudes can suffice as stationary base stations. Both have their own advantages and disadvantages - while it will be cheaper to operate a stationary base station, a mobile base station can be moved so as to avoid any natural calamity. The cables are perhaps the most important part of the setup. It is necessary to manufacture the cables out of a light yet sturdy material. To be economically viable it will be necessary to produce the material at a mass scale and at a viable price. Research has shown that Carbon nano tubes have the capacity to withstand tensile strength of 63 to 177 GPa and are pretty light, as because of the chemical structure of the carbon atoms ensure that there is free space in between the carbon atoms. Thorough research is necessary to produce carbon nano tubes which are stronger. Another point needs to be kept in mind while constructing a nano tube; it will have to bear its own weight along with the weight of the particles which will be transported. Climbers are basically the vessels which will move along the cable. Climbers again will have to be light and heat resistant - they will encounter atmospheric friction while moving up and down a cable. The most important part is the source of power for the climbers. Options like nuclear power, solar energy, laser power beaming are there to be explored. The counterweight is the object which will hold

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Community Involvement in Construction - Dissertation Example The involvement of the community benefits both the community and the economy. The research is made to enhance the economy and to attain advantages from the community. Different books, literary articles in different magazines, newspaper and journals are utilized for the collection of data and information (Groat & Wang, 2002). However, interviews and questionnaire were also adopted for the collection of data. The construction publications and governmental publication are also considered important for the research. The government publications are important in determining the legal situation of the subject. Methodology In order to research the hypothesis, two research methodologies can be adopted (Groat & Wang, 2002). One method is to simply collect the data with relevance to the statement and then prove the hypothesis through the observation and with the help of available information. The collection method should involve the relevant books, journals, literature, etc. The method is often called as the qualitative research method. However, proving the hypothesis by utilizing the scientific tactics or scientific methods, which involves the practical behavior and responses from the people that are influencing the research directly. The method may not involve the collection of data through books, journals, etc. Such research method is known as quantitative research method. ... Secondly, utilization of the questionnaire and interviewing also help community development and fight legal and formal issues. Qualitative and Quantitative Research methods: Qualitative research approach involves the collection of data by researching and exploring the subject of subject without utilizing the principles and laws. The information explores the subject corresponding subject and its constituent parts. The attained information is carefully studied and conclusion is drawn with relevance to the collected information (Groat & Wang, 2002). The information is collected from the books, journals and other such sources that cover the subject. In a quantitative research method, an experimental method is utilized, which follows the scientific methods. In a scientific methods, a sequence of procedures are followed and then according to the finding evaluated through the steps, conclusion is made. The research method involves the collection of data through experimentation and directly consulting the persons that are directly involved (Groat & Wang, 2002). Interviewing or questionnaire is a part of the quantitative research method. Data collection: The information is gathered from various sources and thus it is not in the form that is required. The gathered information required editing. Editing of the information involved the selection of appropriate content and discarding the inappropriate information that is irrelevant to the subject of the research (Groat  & Wang 2002). Secondary Data Collection: In the qualitative research method, primary as well as secondary information sources are searched. Secondary information sources include the previous researches and information available in

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How technology changed society - Essay Example This has also lead to the growth and development of trade as entrepreneurs can advertise their goods and services through the social media. As a result, this has improved the economic status of most societies, as well as countries. Technological advancements have resulted in various modernization effects into the lives of the people. This has in return increased the co relationship among the different ethnic groups in the country thus promoting peace and unity among citizens. Through plurality, different ethnic groups have been able clearly facilitate the social economic life of their livelihood. Through technology such as television, different ethnic groups have been able to learn each other’s cultural values and adapt them in their social lives resulting in a diverse society. Technology has enhanced communication in the society. Following the introduction of new methods of communication, communication within society has become more effective. The emergence of mobile phones is among the greatest improvements in communication that has been so effective. Various technological devices such as the computers, iPods and other industrial, as well as commercial devices that are designed to facilitate effective communication have been introduced. This has increased contact among the members of the society thus enhancing their relationships whether business, social, political, or development projects. With the numerous innovations in production sectors, the environmental has become more susceptible to pollution. The disposal of some technological waste such as the broken parts of electrical and mechanical gadgets such as mobile phones has negative impacts on the environment. Although technological innovations have resulted to the introduction of new methods of undertaking duties thus improving the methods used in the production making production more effective, they

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WH1 EFFECTS OF RELIGION IN EUROPE DURING MIDDLE AGES - Essay Example The church was a very powerful body back then. Before the establishment of Christianity as a strong religion, the Roman emperor had many Christians killed during this period, because they all refused to bow to Roman gods. Emperor Constantine was the emperor who popularized Christianity as a religion, which saw the era of Christian persecution ending. The Romans who previously worshipped other gods began worshiping God and following Christianity ever since. With the Emperor being a Christian, and all other successors following his example, religion was popularized, not only as a religion, but also as a way of life. However, when the Germans conquered the Romans in the 5th Century, the beginning of the Dark Ages, Catholicism began and religion began becoming increasingly strong. The power of the catholic church was great, since catholic was derived from the word ‘Catholic’ which meant universal, thus making Christianity a universal religion accepted by all. The power of the Catholic Church was so great that it charged taxes and had large tracts of church owned lands, and hence it was more than a religion, but rather a symbol of overall power and the equivalent of a government back then. From an economic perspective, the Catholic Church back then imposed taxes on the people and accepted or called for people to donate gifts, if they wanted to secure a place in heaven. The craze of power held by the church also led it to increase in terms of wealth and became a very wealthy institution. The more wealth the Catholic Church accrued, the stronger it became and the more its power extended to other regions. In relation to the social consideration, the church had a strong foundation for socialization, as going to churches on Sundays alone was mandatory, not to mention in the in-week attendances and masses. Latin was the mostly used language and all the religious people, thus had to

How technology changed society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

How technology changed society - Essay Example This has also lead to the growth and development of trade as entrepreneurs can advertise their goods and services through the social media. As a result, this has improved the economic status of most societies, as well as countries. Technological advancements have resulted in various modernization effects into the lives of the people. This has in return increased the co relationship among the different ethnic groups in the country thus promoting peace and unity among citizens. Through plurality, different ethnic groups have been able clearly facilitate the social economic life of their livelihood. Through technology such as television, different ethnic groups have been able to learn each other’s cultural values and adapt them in their social lives resulting in a diverse society. Technology has enhanced communication in the society. Following the introduction of new methods of communication, communication within society has become more effective. The emergence of mobile phones is among the greatest improvements in communication that has been so effective. Various technological devices such as the computers, iPods and other industrial, as well as commercial devices that are designed to facilitate effective communication have been introduced. This has increased contact among the members of the society thus enhancing their relationships whether business, social, political, or development projects. With the numerous innovations in production sectors, the environmental has become more susceptible to pollution. The disposal of some technological waste such as the broken parts of electrical and mechanical gadgets such as mobile phones has negative impacts on the environment. Although technological innovations have resulted to the introduction of new methods of undertaking duties thus improving the methods used in the production making production more effective, they

World of Business. Delta airlines and Northwest airlines Merger, Essay

World of Business. Delta airlines and Northwest airlines Merger, Eastman Kodak Bankruptcy,Digitalization, Kodak Reorganization - Essay Example The merger which was approximately $3.1 billion is expected to restructure the US airline industry and will use the Delta name in its operations with its headquarters situated in Atlanta. This huge merger between the third largest Delta and the fifth largest Northwest airlines will help in creating a global giant with more than 700 jets, 6400 daily flights, almost $35 billion revenue yearly and the new company’s value of almost $17.7 billion, far above their current market value. The merger will also have approximately 75000 employees globally with no hub closures expected and a 1.25 delta share for each of the Northwest airlines shareholders in addition to the seniority protection of the frontline employees for both airlines via fair and equitable seniority integration. The merger of the Delta and the Northwest airlines was also facilitated by the fact that they have very few overlapping routes which may interfere with their operations since Delta had most routes in Europe an d Latin America while Northwest concentrated its business in Asia (Fedor Web). This major merger in the airline industry will further marry the Delta’s route networks in Europe and Latin America with the Northwest’s Asia networks and further create more routes thus widening its networks. This giant merger is expected to initiate significant and plausible efficiencies that will undoubtedly make the US and world’s customers’ gain greatly from savings on expenses for airport operations, technology and suppliers as well as heightening competition in the carrier industry. The merger was aimed at benefiting the two parties involved by making them more efficient in service provision and their respective operations. The merger was also intended to increase international presence and the ability to fund long term investments in the airline industry as well as offsetting the higher fuel prices which has fundamentally affected the financial viability of the airline operations. The merger will not lay off any employee but will tend to raise the salaries of all the employees for both airlines and further reduce their previous pay cuts that existed before the merger (Fleming Web). The merger of Delta and Northwest airlines is intended to provide a better solution of meeting the stakeholders’ objectives. The merger is expected to help the financiers, employees and passengers achieve their main intentions since it will allow the new company to make profits that will be used in increasing the dividends, raising workers pay, and satisfying their clients respectively. A stable and continuous profit will be maintained by the company to sustain its operations hence improving the various stakeholders’ aims. Other benefits that may be accrued are creating a global US carrier that intensively competes with other foreign airlines as well as enabling their customers from across the world get access to a global route system that will allow them to travel anywhere just by using same company’s facilities (Fleming Web). Increase of destinations greatly helps in adding further schedule options and extra opportunities to make more money while redeeming frequent flyer miles thus making a more financially stable airline company with a vast opportunity of growing and expanding. All the customers from both the airlines will benefit from each other’s greater services and strengths to various destinations as well as easing the integration risk due to their complementary networks and common membership in the Sky Team alliance. Although this merger was initially opposed by the Northwest’s airline due to the anticipation of job loss, there was a great

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Commercialization of Beauty Essay To help with any queries you may have about the examination, I have written some guidelines below. You will have had experience preparing exam questions in your review sessions. The following document provides some further hints and tips, with some sample questions at the end. I have also attached a document with questions from January and Resit last year, with an outline of what the answer should contain. What do I have to do? In the examination, you will be asked to select three questions to answer from a choice of six. Very broadly, these areas might be taken from the nine major sections listed in the course outline as below. 3) Marketing to Consumers Consumer Behaviour * Why is customer analysis an important component of strategic marketing management? Making reference to a company of your choice suggest TWO models that can be used in undertaking such an analysis. * With reference to models and products of your choice, describe both the Consumer Buying Process and four common types of behaviour that consumer’s exhibit. * Explain, using examples, how marketers try to influence consumers at the different stages of the consumer decision process. 5) Product Strategy, Brand Management * Describe and discuss each of the key stages involved in new product development and explain why innovation is a key marketing strategy for organisations today. * What is the Boston share/growth matrix? [30] In turn, give an example  product for each of the four boxes and describe the marketing implications. [70] * What is a positioning map and how are they useful to marketers? 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Describe the factors that the company should consider in setting the price of their new product. * Discuss how pricing should play a strategic rather than a tactical role for an organisation. Use relevant industry examples to illustrate your answer. 7) Distribution Strategy * Marketing channel issues are amongst the most important decisions that  management faces. To what extent do you agree with this statement? * Why might a supply channel become disintermediated? 8) Promotions Strategy, Marketing Communications * Advertising is the most obvious form of promotion. Using examples, describe at least three other forms of promotional activity. * Identify and discuss the key strategic actions marketers must take to ensure Integrated Marketing Communications are successful. * Different advertising campaigns can have different objectives. With reference to recent examples, list and discuss four different types of objective. * There are five main promotional tools. Define each and use examples to illustrate their potential usefulness. 9) Services Marketing * Using strategic marketing theories and concepts, state whether you agree or disagree with the following statement: â€Å"Creating marketing strategies for services is no different to the marketing of goods†. * Discuss the extended marketing mix used for services. Why are these useful, given the characteristics of services? Below are listed the exam questions and outline answers for a previous January examination and Resit. The outline answers are produced so that the external examiner and markers have a good idea about what the answer should contain. However, to achieve top marks (70+) you would need to include these points in a coherent argument, aided by relevant examples and context. Resit 2012 1) What are the four distinguishing characteristics of services marketing? What challenges do these present to the formulation of marketing strategy and implementation? Answers should define what is meant by a service: a provider/client interaction that creates and captures value. Definitions such as â€Å"Deeds, processes, performances† (Zeithaml Bitner, 1996); â€Å"An activity or series of activities†¦ provided as solution to customer problems†(Gronroos, 2000); may be used. The four distinguishing characteristics of services marketing will be defined as: Intangible (as opposed to tangible goods): The implication of this is that services cannot be inventoried, or easily patented. They may therefore be easier to copy, and gaining real competitive advantage may be more difficult. Services cannot be readily displayed or communicated- this raises issues in terms of the promotional strategy and message designs that can be used. Airlines may emphasise the relaxation of being on board as the actual process of travel is more difficult to represent, and might be more problematic when communicating the company’s positioning strategy. Intangibility also makes pricing more difficult. With goods, a differentiation focus and premium pricing strategy may be clearly identified by the consumer through the tangible attributes of the products and the difference in quality. The quality of a set of accounts, or a medical procedure may be less tangible, and therefore high prices may need to be supported by other aspects of the strategy and marketing management process. The extended marketing mix, such as physical evidence may be helped to signal quality to consumers. Heterogeneous (as opposed to standardized): Service delivery and customer satisfaction depend on employee and customer actions. Therefore plans for marketing strategy and implementation cannot be guaranteed in the same way as for products. Service quality depends on many uncontrollable factors. There is no sure knowledge that the service delivered matches what was planned and promoted. The extended marketing mix, particularly the planning  of the ‘process’ may be to alleviate problems of standardization. Some companies such as McDonalds have tried to implement a standardized service experience. This may only be appropriate for some sectors however. For luxury services or professional services, the heterogeneous and client-specific exchange may be part of the value of the service. Companies will need to carefully monitor and control implementation. Simultaneous production and consumption – customers participate in and affect the transaction, and each other. Employees also affect the service outcome. Decentralisation may be essential. Mass production is difficult. Because services depend critically on the co-production relationship, it is very important that the service contract spell out mutual responsibilities and expectations. A significant percentage of service engagements (estimates range from 10-50 percent) do not meet the clients or providers expectations, resulting in poor performance and low satisfaction, and, therefore, in less value created and captured than anticipated. This gap is an opportunity for services innovation that will improve returns, performance and satisfaction. The training and management of people, another aspect of the extended marketing mix, may help the control and implementation of strategy in this respect. Perishability (as opposed to non-perishable)- It’s difficult to synchronise supply and demand. For many services, demand may be affected by geographical location, seasons, timing etc. Marketing management has to try to balance supply and demand, for example through pricing strategies- bundling return journeys or making seasonal promotions to stimulate demand off-peak. In this sense, segmentation, targeting and positioning is of key importance- identifying the value sought by different consumers and managing the marketing mix accordingly. Services cannot be resold or returned, therefore pricing and promotional tactics may be to sell services at cost alone, for example last minute hotel bookings and flights. Considering overheads are fixed, it is better to have costs covered than an empty seat or hotel room. However, these tactics may not integrate effectively with the company’s generic strategy. 2) What marketing strategies and marketing mix decisions are associated with the different phases of the product life cycle? Discuss how the product life cycle can help companies to plan its product portfolio. The concept of the plc should be introduced and how marketers use it to make strategic planning and marketing mix decisions. The four phases should be identified as: Introduction: Characterised by low sales and high cost per customer. There are ways which marketers categorise consumer’s willingness to adopt new products, such as Rogers (1983) seminal work on the adoption of innovation. At this phase the segments which should be indentified and targeted are innovators, who are risk takers and open to new ideas. A similar adoption model is proposed by Moore (1999). His chasm strategy would argue that the early phases should involve techies, to iron out bugs. There are few competitors at this stage, and therefore some advantages may be found in being first to market. Consumers may be willing to pay a premium price for products at the introduction stage, and therefore a market skimming strategy may be adopted. Alternatively depending on product type, a cost-plus or penetration strategy may be appropriate. Promotional strategy will have the objective of raising awareness. Heavy sales promotion may also be used. Distribution is likely to be selective at this phase. Growth: This phase is charaterised by rapidly rising sales, lower average cost per customer, and rising profits. At this phase early adopters will consider purchase. They should be targeted by companies as they tend to be respected opinion leaders in the product field will promote wider adoption through word of mouth. Moore’s (1999) model would propose that visionaries should be targeted to help find competitive advantage and to establish the basis of the appeal for the pragmatists. There will be a growing number of competitors at this phase so marketing management and strategy is likely to reflect this. Extensions, warranty, and service may become more important add-ons to secure competitive advantage. Pricing may be competitor-orientated or for penetration. Efforts should be made to build intensive distribution to try to remain market leader. Promotional efforts will continue to build awareness but in the mass market, rather than targeted at a niche. Maturity: This phase is characterised by peak sales, low cost per customer and high profits. Purchasers will be the early/late majority (or the pragmatists and conservatives). Competition is likely to have stabilized as weaker products are forced out of the market. Strategies at this stage might involve diversifying brands (brand leverage, brand extension) and product line changes (widening, filling, stretching). Prices will most likely be lowered at this stage, possibly to match or beat competitors. Sales promotion may become more prevalent. Generally promotional strategy will be to stress brand differences and encourage brand loyalty. Advertising will try to remind and reinforce the brand. Decline: This phase is characterised by declining sales, and declining profits. Laggards or the skeptics will buy the product now cost and risk is low and most other people have purchased the product. Competition will reduce as company’s divest products in a declining market with declining sales. Strategies at this phase may be to phase out weak items. Prices may be cut. All aspects of the marketing mix might be cut back to reduce costs with efforts made at the level to retain loyalists. The PLC can be used in planning a company’s product portfolio. The ideal is to have products at different phases of the life cycle so that products at the maturity phase can provide profits for investment in the mix for products at the introduction and growth phases. Portfolio planning models like the BCG matrix allow firms to address this, and to make sure they are channelling their efforts into products which have potential for growth (stars and question marks) or profit generation (cash cows). Portfolio planning will also be about phasing out products which do not have a future (dogs). Best answers will emphasise the limitations of the plc model (linearity, not all products ever do into decline). 3) Discuss the main areas an advertising company will consider when given a creative brief. Using examples, explain why a celebrity may be chosen as a  message source. What factors determine the success of a celebrity endorsement? Answers should outline the following areas for a creative brief: Positioning statement- what is the overall positioning of the brand. What are the key brand benefits and brand promise. It could be based on: Features: how the brand delivers its promise; Values and personality: what the brand stands for and signifies, which affects relationship and loyalty; or Key reward: may be based on one of these features, safety, classy personality etc. Proposition: spells out what you want to say: big ideas, strategically central. Potential sources of a proposition are: user characteristics, price, brand image, product service heritage, ways of using the product, comparison with rivals, surprising points etc. What are the specific objectives for the campaign- may be to inform, persuade, remind or reinforce. This should help formulate specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and targeted/timed objectives. Objectives may be to move buyers through readiness stages. Models such as AIDA and Dagmar may be mentioned. Target market- what segments are being targeted. This will impact greatly on the message strategy, creative considerations and media choice. Communication is a transactional process whereby meaning is exchanged through the intentional use of symbols. The firm must encode- reduce the concepts to a set of symbols which the recipient will decode. There must be a shared view of what the symbols mean, a shared field of experience. This will be determined by the target market as well. Message strategy: appeals, themes or ideas that tie into the brand positioning and establish points of parity or points of difference. Rewards may be intrinsic e.g. quality or extrinsic e.g. traditional. Buyers expect one or more of the following rewards: rational, sensory, social or ego  satisfaction Creative structure- how should we express our message: informational (rational, logical, product demo, comparison, testimonials); transformational (non-product related benefit or image, stir up emotions, negative: fear, guilt, shame, positive: humour, love, pride and joy, often use borrowed interest devices- music, provocative images, cute animals etc.). Media choice- Where is the communication(s) going to appear? Media classes (media types such as PR, press, TV- does it reach the chosen audience?); Media vehicles (choice within the chosen class such as the Times or the Sun). How frequently? What impact? What exposure? (Burst- concentrated, Continuity, Pulsing etc.). How much is to be spent? Budget and control measures. Message source- who should express the message? Credibility, celebrity endorsement, modelling. Celebrity endorsement: used extensively. The product or service is given credibility through association with someone the audience trust or aspire to be like. Success depends on having a believable link between the meanings associated with the celebrity and the product; Class, status, gender, age, personality and lifestyle are all part of what the celebrity transfers to the product. Likeability also important; Celebrity credibility is comprised of attractiveness, trustworthiness and expertise. The various endorsements of a celebrity such as Tiger Woods may be used to discuss the effectiveness of this method. 4) Using the purchase of a particular product as an example, describe the decision process model of consumer behaviour. What are the short comings of the model in understanding this purchase? The answer to this question will largely depend on whether the student decides to focus on a high involvement purchase such as a car, or a low involvement purchase such as a can of soft drink. All answer will identify  the 5 stages of the decision process model of consumer behaviour: Problem recognition: consumer’s either recognise a problem or have a need triggered by internal or external stimuli. If the stimulus is internal for example hunger, it may rise to threshold level and become a drive. A need can be aroused by an external stimulus such as seeing a neighbour’s new car may trigger thoughts about buying one yourself. Information search: Sources of information may be personal, commercial, public or experiential. Of the total set of brands available, the consumer will only be aware of a subset called the awareness set. Some brands will meet the initial buying criteria and become part of the consideration set. As the consumer searches for further information, a few brands will form the choice set from which the final choice will be made. The awareness set will depend on whether companies have got themselves noticed. Consumers will then have positioned these according to a hierarchy of attributes- type/price/brand dominant. The car purchaser may decide on brands in the consideration set: audi/BMW/Mercedes. The drink purchaser may decide on type, cola with the options of Pepsi, Coca Cola and Supermarket own-brand. Evaluation- will depend on the need the consumer is satisfying; the benefits they are seeking; and the bundle of attributes that will satisfy this need. Attributes that deliver sought after benefits will vary: for the soft drink it may be taste, price, packaging, for the car it may be safety, performance, price. Expectancy value model assumes consumers arrive at decision about brands through an attribute evaluation procedure, combining brand beliefs, the positives and the negatives according to importance. Decision- the consumer makes the choice of their preferred brand and also decisions about quantity, timing and payment method. The car purchaser may have decided on a BMW but there was a waiting time and no interest-free finance so actually decided on an Audi. The soft drink purchaser discovered Pepsi had a trial price and opted for that. Post purchase behaviour- consumer’s often feel dissonance that stems from noticing disquieting features or hearing unfavourable things about the brand and will be alert to information that supports the purchase decision. No single process is used by all consumers, or by one consumer in all buying  situations. There are several processes which are not necessarily made on the basis of such conscious and rational judgements. Non-compensatory models of decision making using heuristics may be used, depending on brand knowledge, differences among brands and the social context. In reality, the soft drink purchaser is very likely just to choose the Cola brand they have previous experience of, or the one all their friends drink. The elaboration likelihood model would suggest consumers may take a peripheral route for this type of purchase, as they are unlikely to have the motivation for a diligent rational evaluation of alternatives. The consumer could just go straight from problem to decision, or certainly skip stages. This model also ignores other consumer psychology such as variety seeking, which happens in low involvement but significant brand difference sectors. Therefore consumers try Cherry Coke, Coke with Lime etc. purely for variety. A car on the other hand would demand the central route. Perceived risk will vary with the amount of money at stake, the amount of attribute uncertainty and the consumer’s self-confidence. For the purchase of a car, there could be functional, physical, financial, social, psychological and time risk. This uncertainty may lead the customer to postpone the decision, as might unanticipated situational factors, both of which are not included in the decision model. High involvement decisions are more likely to proceed down this central route for purchases that are financially involving, technically complex or have social implications (examples might be cars, mobiles). 5) What are the three key stages of the strategic marketing management process? Explain what activities are undertaken at each stage of the process and why this is so critical to a firm’s long term competitive advantage. Strategic analysis- where are we now? This is concerned with understanding the strategic position of the organisation in terms of its external environment, internal resources and competencies and the expectations and influences of stakeholders. Strategy is the development of long-range plans for the effective management of environmental opportunities and threats  while taking into account the organisation’s strengths and weaknesses. At this stage firms will collect and analyse relevant types of information about environmental forces and trends. This will be on two levels: the macro- for which a PEST analysis may be performed; and the micro- for which the Five Forces model for industry analysis may be used, in addition to analysing other relevant factors such as consumer behaviour and perceptive competitor analysis. The other environment is the internal environment in which a firm will identify its assets, resources and their application to determine where strengths and weaknesses may exist. Models such as a resource audit or value chain are used to collect this information. All relevant environmental analysis is then compiled into SWOT from which the organisation will determine where its future strategy should lie given the major factors and trends identified. This stage is crucial for competitive advantage as market information and intelligence is essential for developing a successful marketing strategy based on and for creating and sustaining competitive advantage is today’s rapidly changing environment. Strategic choice- where do we want to be? This involves understanding the underlying bases guiding future strategy, and generating strategic options for evaluation and selecting from among them. Strategy is decided upon in terms of objectives, financial decisions, segmentation, and positioning. These are the crucial and central decisions in developing a competitive marketing strategy. Based on the SWOT, strategic alternatives may be suggested and a decision needs to be made at corporate and SBU levels. Deciding the the mission and directional strategy and allocating resources will be decided at a corporate level. Portfolio planning models such as the BCG matrix may be used. At the SBU level, a generic strategic orientation (cost leadership, differentiation, focus) will be chosen based on unique competitive advantages. At the functional level, strategists consider decision such as what products to offer. Ansoff’s matrix may be used a tool to choose between the four possible options available to any organisation with regard to product/market strategy. Market segments to target and market position strategy are also decided at this stage, as well as competitive positioning and relationship strategies. Segmentation, targeting and positioning are the cornerstone of marketing strategy and key in developing  a distinctive position in the consumer’s mind, developing brand loyalty and therefore building long term consumer franchise that will help the company defend itself from competitive threats. Strategic implementation- how are we going to get there? This is the translation of strategy into organisational action through organisational structure and design, resource planning, and the management of strategic change. This involves the strategic, rather than tactical planning of product innovation, branding, services, pricing and distribution, marketing communications and emarketing. Some responses may also identify a fourth stage- strategic monitoring and control- did we get there? The importance of monitoring and control in strategic planning. 6) Identify what is meant by Value Chain Analysis. Why would a firm decide to use this analytical tool? Framework developed by Porter (1985) as a way of examining the nature and extent, if any, among the internal activities of a firm. Porter argues every firm is a collection of activities that are performed to design, produce, promote, deliver and support its product. All these activities can be represented in five primary activities and four support activities using a value chain concept. The primary activities of the value chain are inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales and services. Support activities are firm infrastructure, human resource management, technology development and procurement. Value chain analysis has been widely used by firms as a means of analysing the internal activities of an organisation. One of the key benefits is the recognition that organisations are much more than a random collection of machines, money and people because these resources have no value unless they are deployed in activities and organised into systems which ensure products and services are produced and valued by the end customer. Firms which produce several products may evaluate several value chains. Examining each  chain and the linkages may allow firms to examine the potential synergies between the value chains of different products. Internal analysis provides a detailed understanding of those aspects of an organisation that are of strategic importance. It is often the way a firm’s assets and resources are applied that explain differences in performance among companies, rather than industry structure. It has been argued that the significance of the external environment has been over emphasised and a more appropriate focus for strategy is the organisation’s resource base. The key idea is that the value chain is a systematic way of examining all the activities a firm performs and how they interact to differentiate a firm’s value chain from its competitors value chains. This differentiation is recognised as a key source of competitive advantage. A firm is therefore likely to use this tool when undertaking a strategic analysis. It will analyse the various activities and determine where its strengths and weaknesses lie. For example high levels of absenteeism and ineffective warehouse automation may be identified as weaknesses. Strong research and development and salesforce results might be strengths. The company will then decide whether to match their strengths or to convert or nullify their weaknesses. The value chain would be used when determining a strategic capability profile or using a SWOT analysis. Answers may explore the alternative forms of internal analysis, such as the resource-based approach, performance analysis approach and functional analysis approach, commenting on potential strengths and weaknesses of these analytical tools. Like any strategic environmental analysis, internal analysis must be rigorously performed and undertaken at regular intervals to monitor and evaluate strategies and changes. Answers may also critique the fact that value creation does not only occur in the organisation but also in the supply and distribution channels. For example the quality of a car is influenced not only by the activities within the firm but by the quality of spare parts, components and the performance of distributors. January 2011 1) Discuss the factors that influence a companys choice of promotional mix. (50%) Name and describe the scope and characteristics of various promotional tools. (50%) The main 5 factors that influence the choice of the marketing mix are: 1) Resource availability and cost of promotional tools 2) Market size and concentration 3) Customer information needs 4) Product characteristics 5) Distribution push versus consumer pull strategies Other relevant points are that: decisions must not be made in isolation from the rest of the marketing mix- must be aligned; marketers need to make the correct choice of the promotional blend to communicate to the target audience; Marketers weigh strengths and weaknesses of tools against promotional objectives Advertising is defined as â€Å"Paid for communication by an identified sponsor with the aim of influencing and informing one or more people†. It is mainly used in the long term and is useful for raising awareness or influencing consumer’s attitudes about brands. Advantages are that it can communicate amplified and expressive messages through the use of sight, sound, music, experience etc. Disadvantages are that is is one directional, impersonal, expensive and can be seen as pervasive. Direct marketing is defined as â€Å"The recording, analysis and tracking of customers’ direct responses in order to develop loyalty†. It is used in the long term and short term. It is mostly used for retention but can also be used for acquisition of new customers. With improvements in databases, direct marketing can increasingly be customised and up to date. It is also interactive i.e. generates responses from customers and builds relationships. Disadvantages can be cost, and that telemarketing and direct  mail etc. are often seen as a nuisance by consumers. Public Relations is defined as the â€Å"Formulation, execution and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding and reciprocal goodwill between an organisation and its stakeholders†. It is used in the short and long term and is particularly useful for building reputation. It has the advantages of low media costs, credibility, visibility, and dramatisation- can catch consumers off guard. Major disadvantage is that it is difficult to control. Sales promotion is â€Å"An incentive for the customer, salesforce or distributor to make an immediate purchase†. It is mainly used in the short term. When used strategically, it can be useful for encouraging trial, re-trial, extended trial, building databases and getting rid of old stock. From a trade perspective it can be useful for increasing distribution, increasing inventory, and improving shelving space/position. Disadvantages are that it does not build brand loyalty and is mainly tactical in its horizons. 2) Explain the concept and purpose of analysing industry competition using Porter’s Five Forces model. Use illustrative examples to support your answer. The reason the Five Forces are important is that whilst industry structure has a strong influence in determining the competitive rules of the game as well as the strategies potentially available to the firm. Forces outside the firm are significant primarily in a relative sense; since outside forces usually affect all firms in the industry, the key is found in the differing ability of the firms to deal with them. The purpose of analysing industry competition is that it: Determines sectoral structural attractiveness Collective strength determines the ultimate profit potential of the industry and the ability of firms to earn rates of ROI in excess of the cost of capital Links with strategy development- goal of business is to find a position in the industry where it can defend itself Strategists should evaluate and rate these forces (high/medium/low threat or power) Accounts  for most of the micro-environment by acknowledging that competitive structure is not just determined by direct industry competitors Answers may outline the different Forces and raise some or all of the following points: Rivalry determinants: Industry growth; exit barriers; brand identity; switching costs; concentration; corporate stakes; diversity of competitors; informational complexity; intermittent overcapacity; fixed costs/value added; product/service differences Buyer power : Bargaining leverage e.g. Buyer information, Buyer switching costs Buyer volume Price sensitivity Brand identity, Product/service differences, Impact on quality performance Supplier power e.g. Switching costs; substitute inputs; impact of inputs on differentation; threat of forward integration; importance of volume to supplier Substitute threats e.g. Relative price performance of substitutes; switching costs; buyer propensity to substitute Entry Barriers e.g. Economies of scale; brand identity; switching costs; capital requirements; access to distribution; expected retaliation 3) Discuss the role that segmentation, targeting and positioning each play in developing a successful marketing strategy including managing the marketing mix. STP is central to development a marketing strategy. The marketing concept assumes different preferences amongst consumers, and STP is how consumers are grouped into clusters with similar characteristics or needs, so that products and services can be targeted to satisfy them. Segmentation is dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers with different needs, characteristics or behaviours, who might require separate products or marketing mixes. The reason companies use STP is that: * It is profitable business. * May discover unfulfilled consumer needs. * Strengthens management capabilities. * Allocates marketing resources. * Sets market objectives. There are 6 stages to STP, which are: When considering which segments to target, marketers consider a mixture of managerial concerns and customer needs which include: * Is servicing the segment consistent with corporate goals? * What is the strength of competition targeting the segment? * Is it desirable in terms of size, future growth and saturation? * Selecting segments whose needs match the companies ability to deliver. * Profitability and strategic fit- SWOT * Ultimately the decision is conceptual- who we are as a company, and where we want to be The strategic role that STP plays is in allocating resources to the potentially most profitable segment of the market. Product lines are then designed to match demand in the market place or match resources. STP means companies can catch the first sign of change to give time to prepare and take advantage of it, and consider best competitive position to adopt for each segment. With marketing management STP allows firms to determine the right style of comms campaign; choose the most cost effective advertising media; apply demographic data effectively; price for maximum effectiveness; and develop the right channel strategy. Ultimately STP results in positioning which is possibly the most important aspect of marketing- it results in changing and forming perceptions about brands, creating brand identity and is about designing, communicating and delivering value (crafting the marketing mix to the needs of the target market is the foundation upon which customer relationships and brands are built). A  product’s position is the way the product is defined by consumers on important attributes, it is the place the product occupies in the consumer’s mind relative to competing products. Positioning is based on unique selling proposition (USP) (what is unique/what are you selling); a Brand’s competitive advantage- with whom are you competing and how are you better? And who will use the product? 4) What personal, social and cultural factors influence buyer behaviour? (50%) Choose an example of a high involvement purchase, such as a car, and describe how these factors influence the consumer’s choice.(50%) Cultural Influences have the broadest and deepest influence. Culture is the fundamental determinant of a person’s wants and behaviors acquired through socialization processes with family and other key institutions. Your values are formed on achievement and success, individuality, freedom, humanitarianism etc. (or Hofstede’s model). Subcultures- more specific identification and socialisation for members on the basis of nationalities, religion, geographical location, political perspectives. Social classes: show distinct preferences in terms of product choice, brands, media choice and languages. Social influences. Relevant factors include: Reference groups: have a direct or indirect effect on attitudes or behaviours; consist of primary and secondary; aspirational and dissociative; they introduce ideas and behaviours, influence attitudes and self concept; they create pressures for conformity which may affect brand choice. Opinion formers (e.g. designers), opinion leaders (offers information and usage advice), confident social and involved with category; and opinion followers. Companies try to reach leaders to disseminate messages. Family- the most important consumer buying organisation and the primary reference group, different priorities and decision-making influences. Personal Influences: Relevant factors include: Age and stage in life cycle- family/ psychological/ transitions. Occupation and economic circumstances- occupation may affect products and services required and what you can  afford. Personality: a set of distinguishing human psychological traits that lead to relatively consistent and enduring responses to environmental stimuli. Often consumers try to buy brands that reflect their own personality (Aaker’s brand personality typologies: sincerity/ excitement/ competence/ sophistication/ ruggedness). Self-concept: actual/ ideal/ others’ self-concept/ multiple selves. Lifestyle: pattern of living as expressed in activities, interests and opinions and values; influences such as time constrained, multi-tasking. Core values: the belief systems that underlie attitudes and behaviours. 5) Discuss THREE different approaches to pricing, outlining the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. The three approaches are: Cost-based pricing : strong internal orientation and based on costs Competitor-orientated pricing : major emphasis on levels set by competitors Market-led pricing: focuses on the value that customers place on a product in the market place and the nature of the marketing strategy used to support the product. Cost-based pricing involves setting prices based on the costs of producing, distributing and selling the product plus a fair rate of return for the company’s effort and risk. Methods include: Cost-plus pricing- simplest method of pricing- involves adding a standard mark-up to the product; break-even- what’s the minimum price we can charge to match the cost of making and marketing a product (BE= (fixed costs)/[(price-variable costs)]. Marginal cost- setting prices below full cost. Often used by service companies like hotels and airlines to make a contribution to direct costs. More complicated for services- variable costs move faster with an increase in demand. Advantages: simple; ensure you stay in business by setting minimum floor on pricing; and helps to set objectives in terms of the minimum number of units that need to be sold Disadvantages: In reality many business use cost-based approaches but they can have huge disadvantages: illogical: raised prices when sales fall; sales estimates are made before a price is set; ignores elasticity of demand; ignores competitor’s pricing; no incentive to reduce costs; ignore the impact of consumer perception and psychology; estimates overheads against individual products in an arbitrary way Competitor-based pricing- Can take three forms: 1) Firms follow the prices set by leading competitors Benchmark then set either above, below or the same as competitor Popular in financial services Can be risky, especially if cost position is not as good as a competitor Could start price war 2) Going Rate- all competitors receive the same because it is the going rate Undifferentiated commodities like coffee beans Challenge for marketer is to find creative ways of differentiating to charge higher price e.g. fair trade coffee beans, premium quality coffee beans 3) Competitive bidding process- contract goes out to tender sealed bids or competitive auction usually lowest price accepted increasing price pressures, European competition legislation and growing use of technology has increased the use of competitive bidding Very common in government and public sector markets Market-led pricing- favourable as it takes into account value rather than price. Main methods: 1) Trade-off analysis- also known as conjoint analysis, determines the trade-off between price and other features different combinations of variables such as brand, packaging, product features and price are tested can measure the impact on preferences of increasing price and determine the price level customers are willing to pay 2) Experimentation- places products on sale in various locations at different prices 3) Economic Value to the Customer (EVC) reducing costs and increasing revenue are primary concerns of companies Therefore in industrial markets, EVC is calculated- can charge more for a product if it will help your customer increase their revenue more than the competition e.g. new technology. Market led pricing is favourable as it takes into account the psychology of  prices and not simply economics; the price is used to say something about the product, and other factors such as stage in the product life cycle. Price often indicates quality especially in services. However, organisational considerations such as costs and the nature and structure of competition must also be considered. 6) Outline how you would construct a SWOT analysis. (50%) Explain the purpose of a SWOT analysis in the marketing planning process. (50) Answers should explain how the marketing environment is analysed- Macro environmental analysis conducing a PESTEL analysis, Micro-environment- examining Five Forces and other factors such as consumer behaviour. These result in identifying opportunities and threats. An internal analysis using e.g. value chain, identifies an organisations strengths and weaknesses. The purpose of conducting a SWOT is to identify strategic choices available to a company. It’s the internal communication of external information about emerging issues, situations and potential threats that potentially influence an organisation’s decision making (Albright 2004). SWOT is essential for firms growing in size and complexity and is an important component of a company’s approach to developing a market orientation. Market orientated companies are more profitable. SWOT is essential in markets where the pace of change and uncertainty is increasingly high- companies need to take a proactive direction. It identifies fads, trends, and megatrends. Scanning customer trends helps you create, communicate and deliver value and beat the competition. SWOT/TOWS is the basis for making strategic decisions about growth, what products, what markets, and whether to convert weaknesses or capitalise on strengths etc. Decisions are then made about STP and how the marketing mix will be managed in order to achieve marketing objectives. SWOT is the result of the strategic analysis which is followed by strategic choice, strategic implementation, and strategic control.